Learning is the act of
acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge,
behaviors,
skills,
values, or preferences
and may involve synthesizing different types of information.
The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.
Progress over time tends to follow learning
curve. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped
by previous knowledge. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather
than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning produces
changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent. Human learning
may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training.
It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation.
The study of how learning occurs is part of educational psychology, neuropsychology,
learning theory, and pedagogy.
Learning may occur as a result of habituation
or classical conditioning, seen in many
animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play,
seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously
or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event can't be
avoided nor escaped is called learned helplessness. There is evidence for human behavioral
learning prenatally,
in which habituation
has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation,
indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently
developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.
Types
Non-associative
learning
Non-associative learning refers to
"a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single
stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus. Changes due to such factors
as sensory adaptation, fatigue, or injury do not qualify as non-associative
learning.”
Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation
and sensitization.
Habituation
Habituation is an example of non-associative learning in
which the strength or probability of a response diminishes when the response is
repeated. The response is typically a reflex or unconditioned response. Thus,
habituation is to be distinguished from extinction, which is an associative
process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is
no longer followed by reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small
song birds—if a stuffed owl
(or similar predator)
is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real
predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed
owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react
to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very
specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in
one place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal,
as well as the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica
and the large protozoan Stentor
coeruleus.
Sensitization
Sensitisation is an example of non-associative learning
in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated
administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995). An everyday
example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral
nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while,
this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn
painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic
response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is
harmful. Sensitisation is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as
maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
Associative
learning
Associative learning is the process by which an
association between two stimuli or a behavior and a stimulus is learned. The
two forms of associative learning are classical and operant conditioning. In
the former a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented together with
a reflex eliciting stimuli until eventually the neutral stimulus will elicit a
response on its own. In operant conditioning a certain behavior is either
reinforced or punished which results in an altered probability that the
behavior will happen again.
Operant
conditioning
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify
the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant
conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning
in that operant conditioning uses reinforcement/punishment to alter an
action-outcome association. In contrast Pavlovian conditioning involves
strengthening of the stimulus-outcome association. Elemental
theories of associative learning argue that concurrent stimuli tend to be
perceived as separate units rather than 'holistically' (i.e. as a single unit). Behaviorism is
a psychological movement that seeks to alter behavior by arranging the
environment to elicit successful changes and to arrange consequences to
maintain or diminish a behavior. Behaviorists study behaviors that can be
measured and changed by the environment. However, they do not deny that there
are thought processes that interact with those behaviors. Delayed
discounting is the process of devaluing rewards based on the delay of time they
are presented. This process is thought to be tied to impulsivity. Impulsivity
is a core process for many behaviors (e.g., substance abuse, problematic
gambling, OCD). Making decisions is an important part of everyday functioning.
How we make those decisions is based on what we perceive to be the most
valuable or worthwhile actions. This is determined by what we find to be the
most reinforcing stimuli. So when teaching an individual a response, you need
to find the most potent reinforcer for that person. This may be a larger
reinforcer at a later time or a smaller immediate reinforcer.
Classical
conditioning
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves
repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a
reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not
normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both
to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now
referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the
conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned
response. The classic example is Pavlov and his dogs. Meat powder
naturally will make a dog salivate when it is put into a dog's mouth;
salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the
unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response
(UR). Then Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time
Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once
he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous
pairings of the bell and the food the dogs learned that the bell was a signal
that the food was about to come and began to salivate when the bell was rung.
Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the
salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical
conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in
honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex paradigm.
Imprinting
Imprinting is a kind of learning occurring at a
particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the
consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly
birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object,
to which they respond as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian
Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds will follow and form a
bond with a moving object shortly after hatching. Under normal conditions, the
object is the mother. Thus imprinting has a survival value because it ensures
that the young birds will not wander off away from their mother's protection.
Under experimental conditions, however, the young hatchling will imprint on
just about any moving object (even human beings), particularly if the object
makes sounds.
Play
Play generally describes behavior which has no particular
end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future.
This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly
limited to mammals
and birds.
Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them
experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with
other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals
they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as
increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury
and possibly infection.
It also consumes energy,
so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have
evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with
learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with
learning, for example improving physical
fitness. Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is
central to a child’s learning and development. Through play, children learn
social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional
skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play
activities. As a form of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking
and language skills in children.
There are five types of play:
- sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by repetition of activity
- role play occurs from 3 to 15 years of age
- rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary
- construction play involves experimentation and building
- movement play aka physical play
These five types of play are often intersecting. All
types of play generate thinking and problem-solving
skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through
play.
Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans
progress through the lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur
solitarily, or involve interacting with others.
Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which a person
learns the values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in the
culture by which he or she is surrounded. Parents, other adults, and peers
shape the individual's understanding of these values. If successful, enculturation results in
competence in the language, values and rituals of the culture. This is different from acculturation,
where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from
their native one. Multiple examples of enculturation can be found
cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that
participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed
to enculturation which is rooted in nonverbal social experience.
As the children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural
significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors
exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known
as being “acomedido”. Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving
constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.
Episodic
learning
Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as
a result of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by
a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are
recorded into episodic memory, which is one of the three
forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic
memory.
Multimedia
learning
Multimedia learning is where a person uses both
auditory and visual stimuli to learn information (Mayer 2001).
This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971).
E-learning and augmented learning
Electronic learning or e-learning is a general
term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more
diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses
different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular
phones. When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment,
it's called augmented learning. By adapting to the needs of
individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the
learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text,
images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented
learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime. Moore (1989)
purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality,
effective online learning:
- learner-learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present),
- learner-instructor (i.e. student teacher communication), and
- learner-content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners’ understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).
In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993) contented that
structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and
communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional
distance).
Rote learning
Rote learning is memorizing
information so that it can be recalled
by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used
for rote learning is learning by
repetition, based on the idea that a learner can recall the material
exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote
learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion.
Although it has been criticized by some educators, rote learning is a necessary
precursor to meaningful learning.
Meaningful
learning
Meaningful learning is the concept that learned knowledge
(e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other
knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning in
which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful
learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the
context of the facts learned.
Informal
learning
Informal learning occurs through the experience of
day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking
because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going).
It is learning from life, during a meal at table with parents, play,
exploring, etc.
Formal
learning
Formal learning is learning that takes place within a
teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system. The term formal
learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the
way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training
departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning.
Non formal learning
Non formal learning is organized learning
outside the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming together
with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in
(international) youth organizations, workshops.
Tangential
learning
Tangential learning is the process by which people will
self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already
enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be
motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show
that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the
original work. Self-education can be improved with systematization. According
to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven to
be an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases
of learning.
Incidental
learning
This type of learning is not planned by either the
instructor or the student but occurs as a byproduct of another activity, which
may be an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event
or common routine task. Learning which happens in addition to or apart from the
instructor‘s plans and the student‘s expectations. Incidental
learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the
traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This
type of learning occurs in part as a product of social interaction and active
involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that there are
un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning which challenge the
equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online
learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students
experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas
as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the
implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically
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